Symbolic Power: Pierre Bourdieu’s Thoughts of Public
Relations Studies in a Democratic System
Dr. Widodo Muktiyo
(Faculty Staff at the
Department of Communication Studies, Faculty of Social Science and Politics,
Sebelas Maret University)
Abstract
One branch of
communication studies which is currently developing very rapidly is public
relations. Public relations presents in human’s organizational life and
democratic system of which spectrum and perspective are getting more and more
complex. However, there have not been many studies that relate public relations
to the recent social theory review such as the Symbolic Power Theory from
Pierre Bourdieu. The Symbolic Power Theory is closely related to the phenomenon
of public relations in democratic system at individual, organizational, as well
as general community level.
Symbolic power is
related to language problems. According to Bourdieu, language is not merely a
value-free means of communication between humans. Language is a device of
authority, or in other words, language shows power. Some people even believe
that language is the building blocks of reality. Language may play different
roles in various interactions. In reality, Indonesian society seems to be
having polarization in playing the role of communication, so that the
disordered use of language can be clearly observed. Symbolic power is sustained
by three types of capital: economic capital, cultural capital, and social
capital. Each type has different dimension in the order of political and democratic
system applied by the society.
As an illustration,
professional public relations officers who play their role in various sectors
are required to own symbolic power such as the mastery of acceptable symbolic
language in forming an image of themselves as well as that of the institution
they represent. Public relations officers who master all three capitals will
build good reputation for his/her institution. The more capitals they master,
the higher the reputation will be. Individuals and organizations which are
present in society will play important role in forming reputation in line with
the more egalitarian and more open democratic system.
The implementation of
various regulations in organizations and political systems will create symbolic
power of each member of society that has essential dimension, including in the
legal order in the system of organizations and society.
A. Introduction
For more than two
decades, public relations studies have been developing very rapidly. Not only
have the applied theories become more complex, but the practice of public
relations in society has also developed and become more various. This is due to
the developing socio-economic civilization level of the society and the
increasingly sophisticated revolution of information technology that ultimately
change people’s way of thinking and behavior. People’s tastes, expectations,
desires, and even the position of good and bad, right and wrong, have been
fallacious for the recent two decades and are no longer applicable. If they
need to be applied in present life, we need to modify them at certain parts.
The changes in society,
such as those in political, legal, and other social systems will ultimately
change the style, modus operandi, dimension, and technology in the running
organization. The so-called modern society is one consisting various types of
organization, such as private, governmental, and semi-governmental
organizations which can be either profit
or non-profit oriented, at local, national, or international level. These
organizations perform different functions of public relations, but they all
have the same objective which is to create understanding and satisfaction of
their stakeholders and to maintain the harmony in society.
Even though public
relations studies are becoming broader and more profound, if it is fully
understood, it has not included a lot of the recent social science theories.
Therefore, it can be clearly seen that public relations as a discipline is
moving away from its main subject: social science. If this continues to happen,
public relations studies will increasingly become too technical and monotonous
that it can threaten the existence of public relations as a branch study of
social science. This case happened to economics which had ever been considered
extinct because it was becoming more technical and abstract, not in line with
the essence of social science.
Ann Haugland (1996)
also considers that there is a superficial tendency towards the study of public
relations which is too oriented to the relationship between organizations and
publics. Moreover, when it is compressed, the most commonly performed study is
a study which is client-oriented. Furthermore, Haughland said:
“So far, the majority
of current research in public relations theory is concerned with defining the
field and setting forth various models of the relationship between the
organisation and its publics. Perhaps because the study of public relations is
closely linked to its public relationsactice – in which, of course, the
strategic interests of the organisation are of public relationsimary importance
– most public relations research also places the organisation in the centre and
focuses on the ways that the organisation can better communicate with and
respond to the individuals and groups who are defined as its publics”.
(Haugland, 1996).
This symptom is quite
reasonable. However, the public relations researchers should not be satisfied.
They can explore this study with broader contexts, such as introducing a
political theory, especially in a democratic society or a social theory in
their study so it will become more significant. Then Haugland stated:
“Very little work has
attempted to place either public relations public relationsactice or research
in a broader context. Although the important role of public relations in a
democratic society is ritualistically invoked by public relationsactitioners,
textbook authors, and researchers, I have found little evidence that public
relations theorists have explored what that role might be or how it might
change in various situations”. (Haugland. 1996).
The narrow scope of
public relations study is also felt by Ihlen and his colleagues. They
complained and questioned about the study of public relations lately:
“At that time, we felt
rather unhappy with the development of theory within the field of public
relations. Or to be more specific, we felt that the instrumental bias in public
relations was too limiting. So long as public relations is a powerful source of
infl uence in society, why are there so few attempts to study this social
activity in its own right?” (Ihlen, et. al, 2009).
In addition to the
field of the study, the rapid development of society gives an effect in the
need of adjusting the application of public relations in conducting every day
functions. This adjustment requires adequate guidance from the study of public
relations theory to refer to the modern social theories. One of the popular
contemporary social theories is the symbolic power theory which consists of
three basic elements: cultural capital, social capital, and economic capital.
Unfortunately, there have not been a lot of researches conducted to analyze
what modern social theories are suitable to support public relations practice.
This paper discusses
how much is public relations studies relevant with the modern social theory
“symbolic power” developed by French scientist Pierre Bourdieu in the era of
democratization in the order of life in the fast-moving society.
To discuss the issue,
this article is divided into three sections. The first section discusses about
the contribution of public relations as a profession in building a more
civilized society. The second section discusses the figure of Pierre Bourdieu,
and the last section is a review of Bourdieu’s thoughts on the phenomena of
public relations in relation to the system of democracy.
B. Public Relations as a Profession
Public relations is a
relatively new study in social sciences. However, the activities which are
currently known as public relations have actually been being performed since
the Ancient Greek and Rome Periods, particularly in the activities related to
propaganda. The practice of public relations began to develop in Britain during
the World War I and II in association with propaganda activities to mobilize
the mass to fight against Germany. Similarly, the countries involved in the
wars were competing propaganda in addition to gunfire. At that time, the
practice of public relations was dominated by the government. After World War
II ended and the economic activities recovered, private companies started to
perform public relations practice. In the past, public relations has not been
used to provide space and right for every member of society to be able to
participate in democratic system which is currently being built in the order of
political system in Indonesia.
Public relations has
various definitions so that even sometimes it creates vagueness and confusion.
The development of the definition of public relations is also influenced by the
development of public relations practice, mainly due to the development of
information and transportation technology which enables the mobility of ideas
and physical quickly and instantly.
British Institute of
Public Relations (BIPR) stated that the main substance of public relations is
to develop understanding between organization and general public. Furthermore,
it is said that: “public relations as ‘the deliberate planned and sustained
effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization
and its publics.” (Olusegun, 2006). The understanding does not only include the
organization’s understanding towards its public, but also include general
public’s understanding towards the organization.
Public Relations
Society of America (PRSA) stated: “Public relations is concerned with or
devoted to creating mutual understanding among groups and institutions.”
(Olusegun, 2006). This definition emphasizes that groups and institutions have
important role in public relations process. Similarly, the concept of
”mutuality” of the definition above illustrates that people who work as public
relations officer will become the link between organization and the public.
Therefore, a public relation officer must be able to accommodate the two
parties in order to create mutual benefit.
Another definition from
Frank Jefkins is that: “Public relations consists of all forms of planned
communication both inward and outward between an organisation and its publics
for the purpose of achieving objectives concerning mutual understanding.”
(Jefkins, 1992). Based on this expert’s definition, in addition to communication,
mutual understanding is the most important point in public relations,
especially two-way communication which occurs both inside the organization and
between different organizations and various forms of public affairs.
Based on the definition
above, public relations is the bridge between the organization and the public.
Therefore, people involved in the practice of public relations are the
representatives of the organizations in dealing with public affairs. Newsom and
his colleagues clearly said:
The public relations
practitioner serves as an intermediary between the organization that he or she
represents and all of that organization’s publics. Consequently, the PR
practitioner has responsibilities both to the institution and to its various
publics. He or she distributes information that enables the institution’s
publics to understand its policies. (Newsom, et. al, 2000).
Based on the
explanation above, public relations officer has a complex domain. Therefore,
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) limits 14 activities which are
related to the public relations (Newsom, et. al, 2000). The activities are:
publication, communication, public affairs, issues management, government
relations, financial public relations, community relations, industry relations,
minority relations, advertising, press agency, promotion, media relations, and
propaganda.
Nowadays, public
relations studies and practices have developed as the impact of the development
of information and communication technology and the blowing-out of
globalization phenomenon. This condition encourages the public relations
profession to be highly considered in every field of works and even in
management conflict in organizations and society.
The word “profession”
itself can be defined as “a vocation requiring knowledge of some department of
learning or science”. There are five indicators showing that an occupation can
be categorized as a profession. Those indicators are: 1) specialized
educational preparation for entry into the field, 2) a body of theory-based
knowledge, 3) codes of ethics and standards of performance, 4) autonomy in
practice and acceptance of personal responsibility by practitioners, and 5)
community recognition that the field offered a unique and essential service.
(Bey-Ling Sha, 2011).
Now, the question is
“Can public relations be categorized as a profession?” However, this question
is still disputable. Some experts state that a worker can be considered as a
professional when he masters certain knowledge related to his profession. The knowledge
possessed must be obtained from a standardized education curriculum which is
strictly controlled to expel or accept someone in the profession.
Based on the definition
above public relations cannot be categorized as a profession. It is also
because public relations has very large spectrums in conducting the job
descriptions, from one place to another from the lowest position to the Manager
of public relations. Certainly, its large spectrums make it difficult to
determine the standards to be done by public relations professional. Even in
another discussion, this is always mentioned that the practice of public
relations is actually attached to every member in a society, with or without
their awareness an individual plays PR functions himself. The obvious example
of practicing public relations rules can be seen in the competition of
politicians to win public sympathy.
Though everyone works
in public relations field will have specific duties and responsibilities, they
will have a basic skill: communication skill both oral and written skill.
Cutlip states:
“public relations
assignments and responsibilities vary from one organization to another, but
writing is considered as the common task that is seen as important all through
one’s career. Besides writing, ‘being good with people’ or being a ‘friendly
person’ has also been associated with public relations” (Cutlip, 2000).
Therefore, the role of
public relations can be played by everyone to represent themselves or the
organization they are in. By applying public relations rules, everyone is
strategically able to develop the assessment to create a credible, civilized
and dignified democratic order.
C.
The Figure of Pierre Bourdieu
Pierre Bourdieu was
born in 1930 within a lower middle class family. His father was a peasant which
then became a postal officer in Lasseube, south west of France. Bourdieu spent
his childhood in Bearn, a small village and he was able to speak with this
local dialect. Because of his academic achievements, he got a scholarship to
continue his high school study in Lycee de Pau from 1941 to 1947.
In 1948-1951, again, he
got a scholarship to study in a well-known school Lycée Louis-Le-Grand in
Paris. This school gathered talented students to study philosophy and to
prepare themselves before studying in elite universities in Paris. Soon after,
Bourdieu successfully entered the École Normale Supérieur (ENS) from 1951 to
1955. ENS was the most prestigious teacher school which had created famous
thinkers such Durkheim, Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, Foucault, and Derrida. In this
school Bourdieu studied philosophy under the supervision of Alexandre Koyré,
Louis Althusser, Gaston Bachelard, Georges Canguilhem, and Henri Gouhier. Jacques Derrida was his classmate and Louis
Althusser was his teacher. Beside studying in ENS, Bourdieu was also studying
in Literature Faculty in Paris at the same time.
After graduated from
ENS, Bourdieu taught philosophy in a high school in Lycee Banville, Moulins
(1954-1955). However his activities in teaching were stopped because he was
sent to Algeria for civil military service where there were riots occurring.
His experiences in Algeria were very important for his intellectual and career
development. These experiences changed his direction from philosophy to social
science, from anthropology to sociology. After 2 years serving in military,
Bourdieu decided to stay and teach in Algeria University (1958-1960). At the
same time, he conducted several field-researches. In this Algeria riots,
Bourdieu trained himself as an anthropologist and sociologist while he was also
learning Arabic and Berber language.
Some of his books were written based on his research in Algeria. Some of
them are the researches on Kabila peasant community which were then collected
in his first book, Sosiologie de l’Algerie in 1958.
As well as other French
intellects, Bourdieu rejected French colonial wars. He left Algeria and
obtained a scholarship as a fellow in Institute for Advanced Study and in
Pennsylvania University in the United States. In this university he met Erfing
Goffman, a symbolic interactionist who developed the dramaturgy approach.
Because of the similarity point of view with Bourdieu, Goffman encouraged him
to stay and teach in Pennsylvania University. However, Bourdieu rejected his
offer because he felt he could not develop critical sociology as what he had
planed if he stayed in Pennsylvania. His return to France, Bourdieu introduced
Goffman’s thoughts and managed the translation of his works to French.
Soon, Bourdieu was
elected to be an assistant lecturer for Raymond Aron in Sorbonne University
(1961-1962) and then he moved to teach in Lille University until 1964. In 1964
he became a study director in Ecoles des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales
(EHESS), Paris. Because of private reasons, he rejected to finish his doctoral
government grant which was the main requirement to teach at university. Thus,
Bourdieu was more comforted with his works as a researcher, trainers, journal
writer than lecturing in class.
Firstly, Raymond Aron
did help him in his research career. However, because of a massive student
demonstration 1964, the relationship of them was loosened and even their point
of views was going against each other. Together with Jean-Claude Passeron,
Bourdieu wrote a book which criticized the class structure represented by the
population of students in French university which was influencing the culture
of students.
After Michael Foucault
passed away in 1984, Bourdieu became the famous scholar who seemingly taken
Foucault position. He spent the energy to develop study center, sociology
journal and establish researcher networks. Later on, this research network
institutionalized and legitimated Bourdie’s vision to develop sociological
research. In 1993, because of his efforts in developing sociological research,
he got a golden medal from Centre National de Recherche Scientifique/CNRS.
In 1970, Bourdieu
changed his focus to cultural topics. In 1970s he conducted a sequence of
researches on consumption, cultural tastes, life styles in French community. He
also performed further study on his data obtained in Algeria and he tried to
reformulate his theory and practice in Le Sens Pratique (1980).
At last, he achieved
the French intellectual world’s peak even though he kept thinking that he was
the outsider of French intellectual’s community. He felt like being grabbed
from his root and thrown into an alien-but-admired world. Because of his local
dialect, he felt isolated in front of his friends in ENS which were mostly
coming from royal and bourgeoisie family. Smart-intellectual spoken was not his
mother tongue. His footprints can be found in his full of paraphrase,
diffident, and a desire not-to-be misunderstood. His experiences as a newcomer
in French intellectual’s world encouraged him to conduct a sequence of critical
research to higher school system in France.
Bourdie works were
always critical and rebelling against social dominated mechanisms. He was
always on the minorities and inferiors’ side. Only in his last time, Bourdie
was involved in practical politics activities. Bourdie criticized the negative
impact of socialist government in France and encouraged people to be back in
leftish.
He boosted movements
against neoliberalism intellectuals. He stated the reasons:
“Saya sendiri adalah
korban moralisme bebas nilai, seakan yang ilmiah tidak boleh mempunyai
implikasi politik. Lalu saya menahan diri untuk tidak terbawa kepada
konsekuensi penelitian saya, dan ternyata keliru. Melalui pengalaman dank arena
tekanan urgensi politik, saya didorong untuk campur tangan dalam ranah politik.
Seakan-akan tanpa terlibat dalam politik orang bias berbicara tentang ranah
social”. (Haryatmoko, 2003).
”I, myself, was the
victim of free moralism, as if science is not allowed to have political
implications. I hold myself not to be thrown to the consequence of my research.
But I’m mistaken. Because of my experiences and the urgent of political
pressure, I was pushed to get involved in political fields. As if without
getting involved in politics, people can talk about social fields.”
(Haryatmoko, 2003).
The context of
intellectual debate in France at that time encouraged Bourdieu to process
”text” so that it becomes real actions. Bourdieu’s thoughts tried to connect to
dichotomy of individual-society or doer-structure.
C. Symbolic Power Overview towards Public
Relations Phenomena
Power is a concept in
social science study. This concept is usually associated with the material
world and something concrete. For Bourdieu, symbolic power is “an unseen power
that can only be done with the involvement of people who do not want to know
that they are the target, or even that they run” (Aunulah, 2006, 19). Symbolic
power smoothly works; even people who are involved do not realize that they are
actually involved in this kind of power circle.
Symbolic power is
related to language problems. In Bourdieu’s analysis, the language is not
merely a means of communication among people which is free in value. Language
is the tool of power, or in other words, language shows the power and there is
even more extreme assumption that language is the reality former.
Symbolic power will be
effectively done if it is supported by three kinds of capitals: economic
capital, social capital, and cultural capital. Any parties/doers will continue
to strive to accumulate capitals and to invest them to obtain maximum benefits.
Thus, capitals are social energy for the doer; the more energy he gains, he
will gain social legitimacy easier.
Each doer, either
individual or organization, will definitely try to continue seeking and gaining
capitals. This happens due to the limited available resources and because they
will never be able to satisfy the urge of all parties. For example, companies
producing goods and services which are similar or the same have to compete to
get the limited market segments if they want to exist.
In this world, resources
are not evenly distributed. People have to compete to gain what they want. A
politician will compete to other politicians to gain the votes from the people.
A Non Governmental Organization (NGO) will compete to other NGOs to raise
public and private funds. A singer will compete to other singers to get the
sympathy from the audiences. In brief, competition is the requirement to gain
something expected. Thus, organizations, especially companies, will develop the
strategies to surpass their competitors in order to get their market segments.
In order to maintain
its existence, each party must continue to develop the capitals which can be in
the form of economic capital, social capital, or cultural capital. Economic
capital is the most tangible or concrete capital which can be exchanged. This
capital can be in the form of money or other valuable material stuffs which can
be used to influence other people as the owner of capital expects.
Different to economic
capital, cultural capital is inherent in a person. This capital will be lost if
the person died. Sometimes people do not understand that they have talent and
are able to perform in particular activities. As the impact of their ability,
they will gain recognition and in turn, their ability will bring benefits both
materially and symbolically.
Public relations
officers have been trained in certain period and have passed through specific
curriculum so they have knowledge and expertise in their field. Knowledge and
skill are called as cultural capital used by public relations officers to
deliver the message and to get public’s feedback about the goods and services
produced by their organizations/companies. In other words, any organization will
depend on the cultural capital possessed by its public relations officers.
Conversely, not all Public relations officers have sufficient cultural capital
so that many organizations/companies are not able to deliver the message to
customers/public and of course they cannot get the feedback from public as they
expect.
The next capital type
is social capital which is the network or connection held by certain party, in
this case is the public relations officers. Bourdieu defines social capital as
“the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to
possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships
of mutual acquaintance and recognition” (Wikipedia). The more connections they
have, the more symbolic capitals they master so they will have reputation in
their network. Reputation is an important step to create credibility both
inside and outside their network. Furthermore, Bourdieu asserts that “the
network of relationships is the product of investment strategies aimed at …
Establishing that or reproducing social relationships are directly usable in
the short or long term” (Dahlberg, 2010).
Building a social
network requires time and effort. This is the task of public relations
officers. They have to focus on creating the image and reputation, so the
organization they represent can gain trust and thus it will be easier to build
partnership with other organizations and communities.
The mechanism of social
capital in public relation plays role in creating image and popularity. The
more to be known by public, the more the social networks gained by the doers
and the organization that they represent can be known more by public. Extensive
social network will be more effective than advertisement.
Accumulation of social capital
is a daily non-stop work for the public relations officers. Like the
politicians, when they occupy political office, they immediately build
strategies to expand their network to be re-elected in the next service period.
Similarly, public relations officers are also demanded to expand network and
connection to maintain the existence of organization/company that they
represent. The image of organization is as if attached to Public relations
officers. Currently, in the public’s perspective, the image of state
institution cannot be raised by public relations officers, so there must be
something wrong.
Cultural capital and
social capital, as explained above, are closely associated with language. In
other words, language can be used to obtain those two capitals and to gain
power for the institution. In other words, power can be achieved by playing the
symbol (language) without having to use violence or physical force.
Furthermore, Bourdieu explains “symbols are the instruments par excellence of
social integration: as instruments of knowledge and communication, they make it
possible for there to be a consensus on the meaning of the social world, a
consensus which contributes fundamentally to the reproduction of the social
order” (Dahlberg, 2010).
Based on the quote
above, language is a symbolic power which can construct the reality in
accordance with the space and time specifically. Symbol is the knowledge
instrument and communication which can be used to obtain consensus about the
meaning of social world reality. This consensus can reproduce the expected
social order.
The most obvious
example on how symbol can be used to obtain consensus about expected social
order is the event of the collapse of the twin tower, World Trade Center (WTC)
in New York on September 11, 2011. WTC was the symbol of capitalist world
located in the center of the USA. It was destructed by terrorists hijacking the
planes. The twin towers were hit by planes. Thousands of people became the
victims and Americans were in grief and rage. It never happened before in the
history that USA was surprisingly attacked by enemies, except the event of
Pearl Harbor in 1942 that dragged USA into Pacific War.
President George W.
Bush with his administrative staffs immediately conducted public relations
activities by intensively doing campaign against terrorism and war against
Iraq. Bush decided to increase the defense budget for military operation; to
persuade and to ask the support from American citizens to execute his goal. He
used the language to ensure that US was under the threat of terrorism; Osama
bin Laden was the culprit and Saddam Hussein was the devil behind that event.
Solution offered by US was to fight against Iraq and to topple down the regime
of Saddam Hussein.
Public relations done
by Bush successfully created the consensus among American citizens, made public
opinion, and constructed social reality that what US did was precise. As known,
US sent thousands of troops and war machines into Iraq and successfully topple
down the regime of Saddam Hussein. Whether the reality created by Bush was
right or wrong, that was different matter. And in fact, after it turned over
time, the reality was actually wrong.
The problem that arose
was why American people trusted very much of what Bush proposed. There were
several factors that shaped reality created by Bush. Firstly, it was social
context. American people were being overwhelmed by emotion, sadness, and anger
over the event of the collapse of the WTC. Secondly, the most prominent, was
symbolic power possessed by Bush in which he mastered the economic capital,
cultural capital and social capital.
If the content symbol
presented Bush as ordinary citizens, it definitely would not succeed in forming
consensus and social reality. Because the person who said was Bush as president
of superpower nation, the impact would be different. Related to personal figure
of Bush who was highly educated, son of a former president, and president;
there was no reason not to believe him. This example illustrates that if public
relations activities are not supported by the symbolic power, those activities
will not be able to achieve the expected goals. Symbolic power of organization
(in this case is the USA) was manifested in Bush as a public relations
officers. In other words, personification becomes important in public relation
activities. The image of organization will appear first on public relations
officers.
Public relation
officers become the main link between the organization and the public. Because
of this important role, a public relation officer is required master symbolic
language to obtain the symbolic power whic consists of three capitals:
economic, cultural, and social. Without those capitals, it is impossible for
public relation officers to do their job profesionally.
Nowadays, symbolic
language has been growing very rapidly along with the development of
sophisticated techonology. Therefore, public relations officers are required to
master both literal and non-verbal language as well as information technology.
The mastery of language and information technology will certainly have to be
trained at university or public relations training. This mastery will enable
someone to gain good reputation and social capital easily and quickly. This
will appear when a person is using blog, Twitter, Facebook, or other media as
means of delivering messages to audiences. In short time, he/she will be well
known and will gain good reputation from the public. Moreover, he/she can
create consesus and lead public’s opinion to execute an act. An example is the
coins campaign for Prita Mulyasari published in media such as Facebook that can
liberate Prita from criminal court.
D. Conclusion
Nowadays, study and
practice of public relations have been developing very rapidly. There are
several factors that influence the development. The first factor is economic
growth. Even though some countries are undergoing economic crisis, the economic
situation generally increased compared to the condition 25 years ago. Economic
development encourages organizational activities both profit and nonprofit,
governmental and non-governmental. The second factor is the development of
communication and information technology that brings new changes in the
practice of public relations.
The development of
public relations practice encourages other studies which are deeper and more
technical, but rarely related to the basic of social theory in which public
relations is a social phenomenon. One of the recently growing social theories
that rarely become the concern of public relations reviewers is the theory
developed by Pierre Bourdieu.
Bourdieu’s theory of
symbolic power is closely related to public relations study and practice.
Symbolic power is related to language
problems. In Bourdieu’s analysis, the language is not merely a value-free means
of communication between humans. Language is a device of authority, or in other
words, language shows power. Some people even believe that language is the
building blocks of reality.
Symbolic power is
sustained by the mastery of the three capitals: economic, cultural, and social
capital. Economic capital is the most concrete capitals and it can be
interchanged. Mastering capital economi can create power in general sense, but
it may not necessarily have symbolic power. Cultural capital contains
knowledge, the experience of one’s social structure in reality through a
dialectic process of habits with the surrounding environment. Whereas, social
capital is a networking/social connections owned by a principal.
Professional public
relations officers or anyone who play role of public relations in the community
is required to have a symbolic power that is the mastery of language symbols in
forming their image and reputation as well as those of the organization they
represent. The more capitals they master, the higher the reputation will be.
E. Daftar Pustaka
Anonymous, “Social
Capital” dalam http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital
Aunulah, Indi, Bahasa
dan Kuasa Simbolik dalam Pandangan Pierre Bourdieu, Skripsi, Fakultas Filsafat
Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyajarta, 2006, tidak diterbitkan.
Bourdieu Selayang
Pandang, http://bukansiapa.multiply.com/journal/item/15/Bourdieu_Selayang_Pandang,
Brubaker, Rogers,
“Rethinking Classical Theory: The Sociological Vision of Pierre Bourdieu”, in
David L Swartz and Vera Zolberg, (eds), After Bourdieu: Influence, Critique,
Elaboration, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2004, pp. 25-64
Cutlip, S., Center, A.,
& Broom, G. Effective public relations, 6th edition, Englewwod Cliffs,
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