To know the science of communication, let us first perform the tracking of science that became the essence of human berkehidupan and is associated with other human beings.
Understanding Theory and Communication Theory
Wilbur Schramm in the book "Introduction to Mass Communication Research" (Nafziger & White, 1972: 10) defines theory as:
"A statement of interconnected devices, the abstraction with high levels, and the proposition thereof can be produced that can be tested secra natural, and the foundation can be made predictions about the behavior".
(A set of related statements, at a high level of abstraction, from the which can be generated That propositions are testable by scientific measurements and on the basis of the which predictions can be made about behavior)
From the definition it is clear that the theory is the study results to the scientific method. Regarding the scientific method, Alexis S Than in his book "Mass Communication Theoris and Research" (1981) revealed that the intended scientific method is a method of inquiry or truth of exposure methods that shows traits - traits as follows:
a.Objectivity
Scientific method of fact finding by analyzing information from the real world (real world), which is outside the world that scientists are researching. The fact chosen not because it supports the wishes of the scientists, but because it can be tested repeatedly - again by other researchers.
Objectivity can be achieved with at least two ways:
1.Empirisme
2.formal logic
Empiricism requires a belief or proposition must be tested in the real world is the world that can be sensed (seen, felt, touched) or can be experienced.
Formal logic examines the conditions - the conditions in which trust or propossisi need to follow it and therefore can be deduced from propositions - propositions other.
b.Berorientasikan problem (problem oriented)
The scientific method will be started only lkalau a researcher acknowledges the problem, whether practical or theoretical, which requires a decision. An issue is often formulated in the form of a question: "why is this .....?" may arise out of simple curiosity, or from the desire of researchers to find order among facts or observations, so that can understand their environment better. Finding the solution of a problem is an important scientific method.
c.Prolem oriented
The scientific method is guided by the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement or decision filed with the problem to begin research; hypotheses are usually formulated in the expression or statement: If ......., then .....". which suggests a relationship between the facts with observations. If an observation or observation proves true, then the next observation must also be true.
A good feature of the hypothesis is
1) Relational (adrift)
The hypothesis suggests keterpautan between the condition of observation.Keterpautan presents or description for the problem under investigation; often expressed in terms of causal (if so, then it becomes so). The cause (cause) we call the independent variable, whereas the result (effect) which is usually the observation that we try to explain it, as the dependent variable.
2) Based on previous knowledge
A hypothesis rather than pemekiran or with. He was based on previous knowledge about the issues that were examined, at a screening and selection of facts - facts concerning the issue. Resolution offered before the study began. This is important for two reasons: first, it narrowed the scope of the problem with trying to define what to test and second, he gave assurance of objectivity.
3) Verify the objective
A study should be able to test the hypothesis objectively. Through empirical measurements and observations directly in the real world. With the need to assign variables - variables secra conceptually and operationally.
Conceptual definition is commonly refers to the definition - the definition of the meaning as contained in the dictionary.
Operational definitions of variables to explain in detail how it will be measured or observed.
d.Theory oriented
The theory is a set of propositions or a general principle that hooks mengkait (the hypothesis being tested repeatedly) about aspects - aspects of a reality. (Theory is a set of interrelated law or general principles (hypotheses have been repeatledly That verifed) about some aspect of reality).
A layman who uses "common sensing" (commonsense) will be satisfied disaggregated view - aggregated from a reality. A scientist is not interested to disaggregated information - sorting, but rather to an overall view of the fact - the fact it faces. The question arises to himself: "how the facts - facts adrift from each other? '" How the effect of changing a fact to another fact? "
If the question - the question is answered, then a theory can be formulated.
e.Self - corrective
Studies put the value - the value of doubt, the question of principles - principles and propositions - propositions that apply. Therefore the principle - the principle fostered only through repeated testing, modified sebgai new fact, scientists are assumed that the theory is dynamic and is in continuous change regularly. There is no proof that the final or free from question.
Self-corrective nature of science lead to the need for other scientists in the same field to examine in depth. It was not only to deploy a new penegtahuan become the foundation for other investigations, but also allows the use of the same procedure in different sistuasi. In this particular value lies in the publication or dissemination of the methods, goals, and results of scientific research.
The theory often equated and differentiated compared with the model. Lawrence Kincaid defines the model as a representation or physically or symbolically representative of a phenomenon in terms of concrete - abstract term that can be applied to one or more cases of dala time more than once.
Stephen W. Littlejohn in his book "Human Communication" said that the term model can be applied to any symbolic description of an object, process or idea (1989).
Regarding connection with model theory, a philosopher Abraham Kaplan provides a view, the theory consists of two broad types. There is a theory that is related to a specific subject, and there was a general nature that can be applied to various fields.The last type of theory is the symbol and the logical relationship between a symbol - a symbol that can be applied by analogy to some event or process. Kaplan menganggapap last type theory as a model. Thus, for Kaplan, all models is the theory (a kind of theory), but not all theories are models.
Little john confirms the theory in the broadest sense as a conceptual explanation of the communication process. Littlejohn insists that the concept is the first element of the four types of elements contained in the theory. The concept is an abstraction that generalizes things - a special or concrete are arranged in a systematic and logical to combine traits - traits and related facts. The second element is keterpautan (relationsip), which is functionally defined relationships between concepts - concepts: the third element of the explanation (explanation), including prediction. And fourth, or last element is a statement of values (value statement).
Theoretical Communications
Gabriel Tarde who became a judge in France and based on sociological observation of human behavior, showing the theory of imitation, namely how a person is influenced by other people who interact daily - days.
Simmel is the father of social psychology, a study group's influence on individual behavior. His book titled "The Web of Group Affiliations" written in 1992 introduced a communication network theory (the theory of communication networks) that includes people - people interact who contacted the understanding of human behavior change is to whom a person connected with the communication string.
John Dewey, Charles Horton Cooley, Robert E Park, and George Herbert Mead, placing communication as a central conception of human behavior. Dewey, Cooley, Park, and Mead emphasizes a phenomenological approach to human communication, emphasizing that individual subjectivity when perceiving a message essentially is a human quality. This communication is how people interpret the information, so how does the meaning given to a message, is a fundamental aspect of the communication process.
a.John Dewey
His view that mass communication is a means of social change. By working with a brilliant student, Robert Park, Dewey tried to start it by issuing a kind of newspaper, Thougt News, to report the discovery - the latest findings of social science and to discuss problems - social problems. Dewey's thinking is based on the Darwinian revolution, and the belief that new communication technologies will be able to display the value - the value of community in a mass society.
Today Dewey is famous for pragmatiknya philosophy, a belief which states that an idea will be correct when practiced. Pragmatism rejected the dualism of mind and reality, subject and object.
b.Charles Horton Cooley
Cooley is dilahirjan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, studied at the University of Michigan (1864 - 1929) and taught at his alma mater during his life. Interpersonal communication with parents and close friends in the primary group is the main foundation of socialization.
In the conceptual scheme, Cooley puts communication at the high value, a mechanism in the formation of what he called the looking glass self is important. This means that interaction with others is like a kind of mirror that helps act as a suggestion of socialization, and thus become the rope that binds the community. The main basis for the theory empiriknya Cooley came from himself and from his observations introspeksinya how the growth of two small children.
c.Robert E. Park
Park is considered as the first teorikus mass communication. Park may also be the first communication researchers. Both the empiricism of science communication and its relation to social change, derived from the intellectual influence of Robert E. Park is very prominent.
After graduation in Michigan in 1887, Park became a journalist, working as a news reporter for eleven years suarat in Mineapolis, Detroit, Chicago, and New York. He also began investigating srana journalism who became mighty in social change in America. Park defines communication as the communication of social psychological process by which a person is capable of receiving the attitudes and views of others.Conception of communication Park showed that two or more people can exchange information each - each giving a different meaning to the information received.
d.George Herbert mead
Mead (1863-1931) studied philosophy with William James paragmatik at Harvard University. Human communication as a fundamental agent of socialization. Mead's theory states that individuals realize themselves through interaction with others, which communicate with it.
Mead asserts that the self (the self) began to develop in children seoarang when an individual learns to play the role of other people learn to intimidate others, and anticipate their responses to activities of a person. Mead created a concept he called generalized ohter with translated I consists of all the attitude towards people - other people with whom one interacts. "Me" is an individual perspective on how people - other people saw him.
THEORY - THEORY OF COMMUNICATION IN EARLY STAGE
1.Lasswell 's Model (Model Lasswell)
Lasswell stated that the best way to explain the communication process is to answer the question: Who Say What In Which Channel To Whom With What Effect (Who Said What To Do With Channel To Whom With What Effect). Answers to questions paradigmatic (paradigmatic Question) Lasswell was an element - element of the communication process, namely the communicator (communicator), Message (Message), Media (Media), Receiver (communicant / Receiver), and Effect (effect).
The communication function according to Lasswell are as follows:
a.The Surveillance of the invironment (environmental monitoring)
b.The correlation of the parts of sos \ ciety in responding to the environment (correlation groups - groups when responding to the environment)
c.The transmission of the social heritage from one generation to the next (tranmisis social heritage from one generation to another generation)
What is meant by surveillnace by Lasswell is collected on the activities and disseminate information about events - events in the environment.
2.S-O-R Theory (Theory of S-O-R)
SOR theory as an abbreviation Stumulus - Organism - Response was originally derived from psychology. According to the stimulus of this response, the effects are specific reactions to specific stimuli, so that one can expect and estimate the fit between the message and the reaction communicant.
So the elements - the elements in this model are:
a.Pesan (Stimulus, S)
b.Komunikan (Organism, O)
c.Efek (Response, R)
In the process of communication is pleased with the change in attitude is the aspect of "how" rather than "what" and "why". How to Communicate Clearly, in this case how to change the attitude, how to change attitudes communicant. In the process of change in attitude appears that attitudes can change, only if the stimulus that hit right - right over the original.
Prof. Dr. Mar'at in his book "Human attitudes, changes and measurements, to quote the opinion of Hovland, Janis, and Kelley which stated that in reviewing the new attitude that there are three important variables, namely:
a.Perhatian
b.Pengertian
c.Penerima
THEORY S - O - R
Attitude change is dependent on processes that occur in individuals.
Stimulus or a message delivered to the communicant may be accepted or may be rejected. Communication will take place if there is a concern of the communicant. The next process communicant understand, this is a communicant kkemampuan subsequent proceeding. After the communicant to process and accept it, then there was a willingness to change attitudes.
3.S-M-C-R model (Model S-M-C-R)
SMCR formula is an abbreviation of the term - the term: S stands for Source, which means the source or communicator; M Short Message which means the message; C stands for Channel which means tract or the media, while the R stands for the Receiver, which means the recipient or communicant.
Channel special about the term which is abbreviated C in the formula SMCR it means the channel or media, according to Edward Sappir component contains two pengertain, namely primary and secondary. Media as the primary channel is a symbol, such as language, gesture (gesture), the image or color, that is emblem - a symbol that is used specifically in face to face communication (face-to-face communication), while the secondary media is a tangible medium, both the mass media , such as newspapers, television or radio, or media nirmassa, for example letter, telephone, or posters. Thus, communicators in face to face communication using only one medium only, for example the language, whereas in a communicator mediated communication, such as journalists, broadcasters or reporters using the two media, namely the primary media and media sekunde, clarity of language and means by which he operated.
4.The Mathematical Theory of Communication (mathematical Theory of Communication)
Mathematical theory is often called a model of Shannon and Weaver, because human communication uncul in 1949, is a fusion of the idea of Claude E. Shannon and Warren Eaver. Communication is used "in a very broad sense that includes all procedures in which the mind affects the minds of others" (very broad sense to incluce all of the procedures by the which may affect on another).
Matematical model of Shannon and weaver described the communication as a linear process.
This theory suggests sources of information (information source) produces a (message) to be communicated. The message may consist of words - spoken or written word, music, pictures, and others - others. Transmitter (tranmitter) change the message form the cue (signal) corresponding to the channel used. Channel (channel) is a medium that transmits signals from the transmitter to the receiver. In conversation cinformasi sources is mind (brain), the transmitter is the mechanism that produces the sound signal, the channel (channel) is air.
Receiver * receiver) perform the inverse operation carried out in their transmitter, reconstructing the message from the cue. Destination (destination) is the object to whom or to what the intended message.
5. The Osgood and Schramm Circular Model (Osgood and Schramm circular model)
Osgood and Schramm model assessed as the degree of circular tinggi.Perbedaan other gods when Shannon and Weaver focused his attention directly to the channel that connects the sender (sender) and receiver (receiver) Aatu in other words communicator and communicant, Schramm and Osgoog discussion focuses on the perpetrator - The main actors in the communication process.
Shannon and Weaver distinguish the source to the transmitter and the receiver with distination. In other words, two functions fulfilled on the delivery side (transmitting) on the revenue side (receiving) of the process.
6.Dance Helical Model (Model Helical Dance)
Communication model is obtained helikal assessed as a development of the circular model of Osgood and Schramm. Dance said that nowadays most people menggaggap that the circular is the most appropriate approach in explaining the communication process.
Helix (helix), which is a circular form indicates that a growing today kebanykan people assume that the circular is the most appropriate approach in explaining the communication process. (View admin Figure 4)
The process of communication, like all social processes, consisting of elements - elements, relationships - relationships, and environment - lingkunganyang continuously.
7.Newcomb `ABX model (Model ABX Newcomb)
This model is reminiscent of network diagrams created a working group of social psychologists and cognitive konistensi an initial formulation. In the simplest form of communication activities, a person, A, convey information to another person, B, about something, X. The model states that the orientation of A (attitude) towards B and of X are mutually dependent, and the three form a system that includes four orientations.
a.Orientasi A to X, including a good attitude towards X as an object to be approached or avoided and to the characteristics - cognitive traits.
b.Orientasi A to B, in the true sense - is the same (for the purpose menghidarkan terms - terms that membingunkan, Newcomb mention the attraction of positive and negative with respect to A artau C as a people - people with an attitude - an attitude that menyenangkandan unpleasant to X) .
c.Orientasi B to X
d.Orientasi B to A
In this Newcomb model of communication is a common and effective way in which people - people mengrientasi 9Severin themselves to the environment and Tankard, 1992).
His theory was concerned the case of two people who have attitudes pleased or displeased with each - each and on the external onbjek, it will tibul balanced relationship (if two people loved each other and also enjoys an object) and there were not balanced (if two people loved each other , but which one menyenagi objects, and others not). Furthermore, in case of balance, each participant will block the changes, and when so imbalance various efforts will be made to restore cognitive balance.(McQual and Windahl, 1984).
8.The Theory of Cognitive Dissonnance (Theori cognitive dissonance)
Disonasi terms of cognitive theory presented by Leon Festinger This means a discrepancy anata cognition as an aspect of attitude to behavior that occurs in a person. People who are experiencing dissonance will attempt to find a pretext to reduce disonansinya it.
In general, people behave steady or consistent with what is known. but reality shows that are often behave inconsistently someone like that. Leon Festinger presents an example of a young man who was dating. When he was engrossed date with all the excitement, he realized that the money in his pocket is not sufficient to act against his girlfriend's. Keterpautan behavior with his actions regarding his financial situation was called disonasi.
It is clear that if the person receiving the communication will increase trust with disonasi between behaviors. So persuasive communication will be very effective, when reducing disonasi, and ineffective if the increase disonasi.
9.Inocculation Theory (Theory of inoculation)
People who do not have information about something or are not aware of the position on the matter, then it will be easier to dipersuasi or persuaded, therefore he was not prepared to reject the arguments of the persuader or the persuader. One way to make that are not easily subject to influence is "injected" with argementasi reply (counterarguments).
Inoculation theory states that it is better to arm persuaded (persuadee) with counterarguments rather than letting the opponent is not prepared to deny perspective.
10. The Bullet Theory of Communication (bullet theory)
Bullet theory is an original concept as the effects of mass communication by the communication theorists in the 1970s called also hypodermic needle theory.
Wilbur Schramm in the 1950's it was said that a communicator can be fired to the communication that is so magical to a passive audience is helpless.
In the 1970s Schramm asked the devotees to the bullet theory of communication was not considered there, because the audience was subjected to mass media was not passive.
Schramm statement regarding the revocation of his theory is supported by the Paul Lazarsfeld and Raymond Bauer. Lazarsfeld said that if the audience exposed to the bullets of communication, they are not dropped off. Sometimes - sometimes the bullet did not penetrate. Adakala also different effects that arise with the aim of the shooter.Often the target audience is also pleased to be shot.
Raymond Bauer stated that the target audience is not passive. They are stubborn (stubborn). They actively seek the desired from the mass media. If you find it, then do the interpretation in accordance with the predisposition and needs. Limited effect model or a limited effect. Hovland said that communication messages are effective in disseminating information, but not in changing behavior.
C. THEORY - THEORY OF COMMUNICATION IN THE NEXT STAGE
1.Four Theories of the Press (Release Four Theories)
Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wibur Scramm in 1956 published a book entitled "Four Theories Of the Press". The book was peeled four press system prevailing in various countries around the world, ie each Authoritarian theory, Libertarian Theory, Soviet Communist Theory, and Social Responsibility Theory.
a.Authoritarian theory (the theory of authoritarian)
Authoritarian theories that are often also referred to an authoritarian system is closely related to the supervision system of the mass media are considered very strong power of influence, so that the press dubbed the fourth estate (the fourth power) and radio broadcast dubbed the fifth estate (fifth power) after the legislative, executive , and judiciary, respectively - each recognized as the power first, second and third.
According to Fred S. Siebert ptoriter theory states that the relationship between mass media and the society is determined by the assumption - that the fundamental philosophical assumptions about human beings and nations. In this case included: (1) human nature, (2) the nature of society, (3) the relationship between man and state, and (4) the fundamental philosophical problems, the nature of knowledge and the nature of truth.
Toriter theories about the function and purpose of society mnerima proposition - the proposition that states that the first - all a person can only achieve their full if he became a member of the community. As an individual scope of activities is really limited, but as community members the ability to achieve a goal can be increased without limit. On the basis of this assumption, the group is more important than individuals, because only through one's group can achieve its goals.
The theory developed the proposition that the state as an organization kelompik preformance highest levels have replaced individual in relation to the degree of value, because no one country is powerless to develop himself as a civilized human being.One's dependence on the state to reach civilization has become a key element for an authoritarian system.
b.Libertarian theory (liberal theory)
Authoritarian theory, Liberal theory also advanced by Fred S, Siebert. It also confirms that in order to understand the principle - the principle of democratic pemerinatah.Liberalism is the notion, the human animal and virtuous character is the goal for himself. Happiness and well-being is the goal of society, and man as a thinking organism mapu organize the world around him and able to make a decision - the decision to advance its interests.
For the life of 18th century is the century of the press is important in conjunction with the understanding that liberalization. In the century there were two things are important, namely the first, concerning libel containing incitement, and second, concerning the right of the press to proclaim the wisdom of the government.
The struggle to recognize the principle - the principle that affects the liberal press, culminating with the formulated and receipt of the Bill of Rights, including regulations - regulations that define the freedom of the press, must not expressly giving rise to various interpretations. From a number of items that include the Bill of Rights, only one item that seems to be accepted without interpretation, namely, that press freedom is not absolute, but may be subject to pembatsan that how that could be subject to restrictions, but restrictions on how that can be charged to the press, in liberalism at issue.
The function of the press according to liberal theory can be formulated as follows:
a.Mengabdi to the political system by providing information, discussion, and to the public events;
b.Menyebarkan information to the public in order to be able berperintahan own;
c.Mengawal rights - individual rights by serving him as a guard facing the government;
d.Mengabdi the economic system, notably by bringing buyers and sellers of goods and services through advertising media;
e.Menyajikan entertainment;
f.Mengusahakan funds for its own needs, so free from the pressure of interested parties.
Superiority of liberal theory focuses on the principles of individual liberty, and the assessment of the axiom that truth, if given kebebesan, will emerge as the victor in every struggle. Slogan is a process of self tegakkam (selfrighting process) and vehicle exchange of ideas (market plece of ideas). He has become an integral bagaina from the ranks of democracy that has produced amazing advances for the common man.
c.Soviet Communist Theory (Soviet Communist Theory)
This theory was shelled by Wilbur Schramm, which means as said earlier there are in the same book. Namely "Four Theories of the Press).
Schramm in kupasannya tried menyelurusi from its roots, the thought of Karl Marx through growth in the days of Lenin and Stalin.
Schramm said that the living conditions that are material, especially the way people manage their lives and the kind of life he managed to determine the human idea. In other words, economics, systems kekeuatan productive, and productive relationships is a central factor for human life, a fact which determines the nature of community life.
He argues that mass media should tehadap supervision rests on those who have the facilities; means of printing, broadcasting stations, and others - others. As long as the capitalist class supervise these facilities Fisk, burus class must have its own means of communication. Similarly, the workers must have the actual means of press freedom would not exist except in a classless society, in which the working class had seized communication equipment and no longer fear going supervision berjuis owners.
The concept of press freedom in the Soviet UNU is negative freedom, ie freedom from, while the concept of freedom in the system of social responsibility is the freedom to say that the press / media in the Soviet Union was free, not free to menyartakan opinion, but free from capitalism, indualisme , bourgeois and anarchy.
d.Sosial Responsibility Theory (Theory of Social Responsibility)
The theory of social responsibility are discussed in the book "Four Theories of the Press" by Theodore Peterson. That freedom and obligation beriiringan take place, and the press who enjoy standing in democratic governance. Obliged to be accountable to the public in melaksankan fungs - certain functions are essential.
Theory development Social responsibility is as a result of criticism - criticism and vigorous press activities, especially in the 20th century. In response to criticism - criticism that is considered very significant for the life of the state, society and the press itself, will be established the Commission on Freedom of the Press. Press Freedom Commission has formulated five requirements of the press which, according to Theodore Peterson's analysis is as follows:
The first requirement, proclaim events - events of the day - the day a true, complete and berpekerti in a context that implies.
Terms Secondly, to provide a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism.
The third requirement, projecting the image that represents the core group in society.
Terms fifth, responsible for the presentation with an explanation of the purpose and value - the value of community.
Terms fifth, seeking full access to the event - the event day - day.
1. Liberal theory was born from the concept of negative freedom, which clearly can be defined as the freedom of self, and more pointedly pengenkangan freedom from external, while the theory of social responsibility rests on the concept of positive freedom, ie kebebesan for, who wants to be a means to achieve goals chill.
2.Individual Difference Theory (Theory of Individual Differences)
The name of the theory presented by Melvin D. This Defleur lengkanya is "Individual Difference Theory of Mass Communication Effect". So this theory examines the differences - the differences between individuals - individuals as the target of the mass media when they are exposed, giving rise to certain effects.
Basic assumption of this theory is that humans are extremely varied psychological organization in private capital. Man who grew up in the neighborhood who learned it, they mengehendaki set of attitudes, values, and beliefs which is the order of the psychological individual - each person who sets it apart from the others.
These individual differences in theory contain stimuli - stimuli that give rise to specific interactions with different character - the character of individual members of the audience.
Categories 3.Social Theory (Social Category Theory)
Social Category Theory stated that there were associations - associations, togetherness - togetherness or categories - social categories in the urban community - industrial behavior when exposed to the stimulus - the stimulus is almost certain - almost read women.
The basic assumption, although the heterogeneous nature of modern society, people who have the same number of CIR will have the same traditional lifestyle. Equation style, orientation and behavior will be related to a phenomenon such as the mass media in a uniform behavior. Members - members of a particular category will select a message about communication - about the same, and responded with much the same way too.
Relationships 4.Social Theory (Theory of Social Relations)
The theory presented by Melvin DeFleur also shows that informal social ties play an important role in changing the behavior of people exposed to mass communication messages.
One study found no such information activities through two basic stages. First, information is moving from media to people - people who are relatively knowledgeable; Second, moving information from people - people that through their interpersonal channels that are less exposed to the media and many depend on others concerning the information. Communication situations such as this is known as a two-step flow of communication (two-step flow of communication)
People who often terlbat in communication with the mass media are called opinion leaders as a translation of the opinion leaders, as soon found that was instrumental in helping pembentuknan a vote in the election order. They not only impart information, but also the interpretation of the communication messages they receive. Some kind of personal pengarus immediately recognized this as a two-phase flow of communication (two-step flow of communication)
People who frequently engage in communication with the mass media are called opinion leaders as a translation of the opinion leaders. They just pass the information, but also interpret the message that they teriam communications. Similar personal effects (personal influence) is immediately recognized as a mechanism of mass (the campaign) with a response (behavior selection) of the message.
Norms 5.Cultural Theory (Cultural Norms Theory)
Cultural Norms Theory by Melvin DeFleur essence is that the mass media through which seletif penyanjiannya and its emphasis on the theme - a specific theme, create the impression - an impression on audiences in which the norm - cultural norms of a certain thing, then the communication media will indirectly affect behavior.
Three ways in which media can potentially affect the situation and norms for the individual - the individual.
First, mass communication messages will reinforce the pattern - a pattern that is applicable and guide the audience to believe that a particular social form was nurtured by the community.
Second, communication media can create new beliefs about things - things many audiences have had little previous experience.
Third, mass communication may alter norms - norms being applicable and therefore change the khlayak of a form of behavior to another.
Another example related to the Cultural Norms of this theory is the problem of racial prejudice in Ameriak, where the white man's Negro man looked dirty and nasty, so they deserve just a job as a service, shoe cleaning carpenters, farm workers, even as an inmate.
6.Social Learning Theory (Belajat In Social Theory)
Social Learning Theori presented by Albert Bandura examines the process of learning through the mass media as a challenge to the learning process is traditionally.
Traditional learning theory states that learning occurs by way of showing the responses and experiencing the effects - effects that arise. The main determinant of learning is reinforcement, where responses will be repeated if the organism be punished or if the response does not lead to the goal dikendaki. Thus, the behavior of externally regulated by the stimulation caused by the condition - the condition of confirmation.
Two reasons are relevant to the discussion of the mass media are as follows:
First, in its most radical theories of human learning is lowered into a robot that secra totally controlled by the environment. Learning theory menggangap radical nature of the possible influence - the influence of motives dabn cognition of the organism to study because the process can not be addressed directly. So learning is a mechanistic process. Responses - responses studied in automatic and unnoticed.
Second, radical behaviorism can explain only a small part of our behavior every day.Since this theory states that can only happen through "trial and error (trial and error) on direct experience, many behaviors that we learn can not be accounted for. Most of us learned first kencendrungan response - not primarily the result of real experience directly, but rather observations about another JV. This observation may direct, for example, implements the behavior for real, or indirectly such as when observing the behavior exhibited by the mass media (Tan, 1981: 204).
The starting point of the learning process is an event that can be observed, either directly by someone. Real behavior perlaku learned from observation, while siakap, values, moral judgments, and perceptions of social reality through abstract modeling study
Albert Bandura's social learning theory states that regard the media as the primary agent of socialization in addition to family, school teachers, and friends.
In the first step of social learning is attention (attention) to an event. Attention to an event is determined by kateristik events (or stimuli being modeled) and kateristik the observer. Events that are clear and easy sedehana will attract attention and therefore easily modeled.
In the second step, namely the retention process earlier, events that attract dimaksukkan to mind in the form of verbal or imaginal symbol so that it becomes memory (memory)
In the third step, motor reproduction processes, the results of earlier memories will rise to forms of behavior. Cognitive abilities and motor skills at this step plays an important role. Reproduction of fellow usually is a product of "trial and error" in which feedback influences.
\ The last step, motivating process, suggesting that the behavior will be achieved if there is a value affirmation. Affirmation may take the form of external reward, observations which show that for others the rewards due to the same behavior, as well as internal rewards, such complacency. (Bandura: 209 - 210)
7.Diffusion Of Innovation Model (Model Diffusion of Innovations)
Innovation diffusion model end - the end of this lot as a digunkan approaches in development communication.
Rogers defines diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels within a certain period among members of a system. (The process by the which an innovation is communicated througt Certain channels overtime Among the members of a social system). Diffusion is a special type of communication associated with the spread of the message - the message as a new idea. While communication is defined as a process in which the actors create the mutual exchange of information and information to achieve mutual understanding. In the content of the message contained ketermasaan (newness) that gives a special characteristic diffusion involving uncertainty (uncertainty). Uncertainty is the degree to which a number of alternatives associated with an event he felt along with the possibility - the possibility palternatif. The degree of uncertainty by a person will be reduced by obtaining the road.
Element - element is the diffusion of ideas (1) innovation, (2) which is communicated through certain channels, (3) within a specified period, (4) among the members of a social system, innovation is an idea, or object that is considered wealthy by the newone.
Relative advantange is a perceived degree to which the innovation is better than any other idea in his place. The degree of relative advantage can be measured secra economical, but the factor of social achievement, comfort and satisfaction is also an important element.
- Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is felt steady or consistent with the values - values that apply, experience and needs of those who do adopt.
- Complexity is the quality of the degree to which the innovation is felt difficult to understand and use.
- Triability is the quality of the degree to which innovation can dieksprementasikan on a limited basis.
- Observabiliti is the degree to which the innovation can be seen by others.
Rogers stated that the mass media more effectively to create knowledge on innovation, while interpersonal channels are more effective in the formation and experimental attitude toward new ideas, so in an effort to influence the decision to adopt or reject new ideas. Another aspect of the activity and diffusion is haterophily homophiliy.
Regarding the time as one of the main elements of the diffusion of new ideas meliputu three things, namely as follows:
1) Innovations-decision process (process innovation decision)
2) innovativeness (keinovatifan)
3) Innovation's rate of adoption (innovation rate of adoption)
Innovtion decision process is a mental process in which a person passes from first knowledge of an innovation kepembentukan attitude toward innovation, the decision to accept or reject, kepelaksanaan new ideas, and kepeneguhan decision.
There were five new measures conceptualized in this process, namely:
a.knowlegde (knowledge)
b.persuasion (persuasion)
c.decision (decision)
d.implementation (implementation)
e.comfirmation (confirmation)
In this decision prosess innovation someone searches for information in several steps to mengurangu uncertainty about the innovation. On the steps of knowledge a person receives information inherent in technological innovation; he wants to know what innovation is and how it works. Tetepi on persuasion and decision steps, someone looking for innovation assessment tebtang information to reduce uncertainty about the expected consequences of innovation. The move took him to the acceptance of decisions (adoption), the decision to take advantage of innovations that completely, or to the rejection, the decision to reject the innovation.
Innovativeness is the degree by the name of a person's relatively early in adopting the idea - an idea rather than members - other members in a social system. Adopters are diketegorikan as follows:
(1) innovators (innovator)
(2) early adopters (early adopters)
(3) early majority (early majority)
(4) late majority (the majority of late)
(5) laggard (the rear)
Rate of adoption is the relative speed with the name of an innovation adopted by the members - members of a social system.
Rate of adoption or the adoption rate is usually measured by the time it takes for a certain percentage of its members to adopt an innovation system. The social system dimasudkan order unity is related to one another preformance problem-solving efforts in order to achieve certain goals. (Rogers, 1938: 36-37)
8.Agenda Setting Model (Model Structuring Agenda)
Agenda setting for the first model displayed by the ME Mc.Combs and D.L. Shaw in "Public Opinion Quarterly," published in 1972, titled "The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media". "If the media put pressure on an event, then the media will influence the audience to consider it important"
But David H. Heaver in his work entitled "Media Agenda Setting and Media Manipulation" said the press senagai mass communication media do not reflect reality, but rather to filter and shape it like a kaleidoscope that filter and shape it like a kaleidoscope of light that filters and shape it (the press does not Reflect teality , but rather filters and shapes it, much as a caleidoscope filters and shapes it).
It's about setting the agenda, Alexis S. Tan further concluded that the mass media affect political cognition in two ways:
a.Media effectively inform the khalayk political events;
b.Media affect public perception of the importance of dealing with political issues.
Agenda setting includes three agendas, namely the media agenda, public agenda and the agenda kebijkasanaan. Each - each agenda that includes dimensions - dimensions as follows:
1) For the agenda of the media, dimensions - dimensions:
a) Visibility (visibility) (number and prominence of news)
b) Audience salience (salient level for the audience) (relevance of news content with kebutusan audience)
c.Valence (valence) (pleasant or unpleasant way of coverage for an event)
2) For the public agenda, dimensions - dimensions:
a) familiarity (familiarity (the degree of awareness of a particular subject khalayk))
b) personal salience (personal prominence (relevance of interest with a personal characteristic))
c) favorability (pleasure) (sebang consideration or not happy about the news topics.
3) For the agenda kebijkasanaan, dimensions - dimensions:
a) support (support) (fun activities for the position of a specific news)
b) the likelihood of action (possibly activity) (the possibility of carrying out what might be likened)
c) freedom of action (freedom of action) (the value of activities that may be taken by the government)
9.Uses and Gratifications Model (Model Usability and Satisfaction)
Approach uses and gratifications for the first time described by Elihu Katz (1959), research is directed to the answer to the statement dilakuakn What the media to the audience (What do the media to do people).
The model uses and grafitications showed that the main problem is not how the media to change attitudes and behaviors khalayk, but how the media meets the needs of social pribadidan khalyak. Thus, the weight is on the active audience, who deliberately used the media to achieve specific objectives.
To get clarity about the uses and gartifications this model can be studied Figure 7 are presented by Katz, Gurevitch and Haas.
Uses and gratifications model to start with social lingkunagn (socisl environment) that determine our needs. The social environment includes characteristics - characteristics and traits group affiliates - personality traits. Individual needs (individual 's needs) is categorized as a cognitive needs, affective needs, personal integrative needs, social integrative needs and escapist needs.
The explanation is as follows:
1) Cognitive needs (cognitive demand):
Requirement relating to verification of information, knowledge and understanding of the environment. This need is based on a desire to understand and master the environment; also satisfy our curiosity and the urge to penyeludikan us.
2) Affective needs (affective needs):
Requirement relating to verification of experience - an aesthetic experience, fun, and emotional.
3) Personal integrative needs (in integrated personal needs):
Requirement relating to verification of credibility, trust, stability, and individual status. It - it is derived from the desire for self-esteem.
4) Social integrative needs (social needs integatif):
Needs related to reassurance contracts with family, friends, and the world. It - it terbut based on the desire to affiliate.
5) Escapist needs (demand release):
Needs related to the effort menghindrakna pressure, tension, and the desire for diversity.
Prof. model. Takeuchi, published in the Journal "Studies of Broadcasting" published in 1986 that describes the uses and gatifications paradigm which says: What kind of people in the which means of communication and how, the translation is about - about as follows: "Type in a state where the audience how darei satisfied by what means of communication needs where and how ".
Affirmed by prof. Tekeuchi that element - the element that should be lived in perspective, is the hallmark - personal characteristics (personal characteristich) audience, the social conditions
public , needs audience, motivation and behavior of a real response to exposure to mass communication and patterns of demand (gratifications pattern ), but in the end it turns out all factors must be considered as factors that explain the pattern of needs (Figure 8).
10.Clozentropy Theory
Theory Clozentropy the first - first put forward by Donald Dranell in 1970, later developed by Dennis T. Lowry and Theodore J. Marr, who reviewed this theory in international communications.
Studies conducted by Lowry and Marr to Clozentropy Theory emphasizes the importance of pre-familiarity with a clumsy message content (prior familiarity with idiosyncratic content) in relation with the understanding communication messages, in the sense of the content of this communication message is unique. In some cases pre-familiarity is more important than the level of formal education.
Clozentropy Theory have been known previously to improve the "know themselves (know thyself)" to familiarize yourself with your message and your target and pertautannya.
Definition of Communication Theory
The theory of cognitive dissonance
This theory reveals about the discrepancy between opinion (attitude) and behavior.People who are experiencing dissonance will attempt to find a pretext for mengurandi disonannsinya.
Communication Accommodation Theory
This theory of motivation and the consequences look at what happened between the two speakers. They change the style of communication that took place in convergent ie where one party to focus on group identity and diverges ie where one party requires social approval, especially for individuals who do not have power.
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory (CMM)
This theory suggests that when humans communicate a sense re-imaged. Pencitraab back is done in a coherent (when the story is told) and coordinative (when the story was there). The focus of this theory lies in the individual with the community (communities).
Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television and other media play a crucial role in the human perspective in viewing the world, especially in terms of violence. According to this theory humans view the world more terrible than it really hard and because of a TV show that aired.
Cultural Approach to Organization
This theory considers man as an animal that is bound in a network created by their own and consist of symbols that are used together and have a sense of its own, the story is organized, ritual and religious events. The overall shape the culture of an organization.
Cultural Studies
This theory stipulates that the media is a representation of the ideology of a dominant class in society, as a corporate-controlled media because the information was presented to the public always should be influenced and framed in the mind profit is the dominant class.
Dramatism
This theory is compared with the drama of life., Namely that life requires the actors, scenes and acting as well as the cause of an action took place. The rhetorical critic can understand the motives of the speaker by analyzing the elements mentioned above.
Expectancy Violations Theory
This theory analyzes how non-verbal message is structured. This theory in greater depth also reveal when the communication norms are violated then the breach will be well received or not depends on the perception of the recipient of that message to people who violate norms.
Theory Face Negotiation
The emphasis of this theory lies in how humans communicate individually or collectively in the face of cultural conflict situations, which is based on the way people from diverse cultures manage conflict negotiation so that every desire can be fulfilled.
Groupthink
Groupthink phenomenon occurs in a cohesive group that fails to consider effective alternatives that can resolve the dilemmas that occur in the group. This happens because the members of the group have the same mind and are very rare exchange of ideas that are not popular and not the same as other members.
Muted Group Theory
Revealed by this is that language can be used more men than women, because of the experiences of European American Men can be identified in the language, while another group (women) do not.
The Narrative Paradigm Theory
This theory states that man is an animal story, namely that replaces the traditional logical logical narrative is that humans determine the credibility of the speaker by determining whether the story told by coherent and totally correct.
Organizational Information Theory
This theory reveals that the main activities of an organization is making vague information that made sense. Members of this group through the stages of processing with rule-making, selection and retention of information, so that ultimately the organization can reduce uncertainty in this way.
Theory of Relational Dialectics Theory
This theory states that the relations of life are always proceeds, so that men always feel in relation to conflicts of interest which man has always wanted autonomy, relationships, openness, security, something new and predictability, so that when people communicate has always tried to unite these different interests, although in the end no one can do it on both sides.
The Rhetoric
This theory is based on what is needed in the persuasion, that the three tests rhetorically: logical, emotional and ethical, Audience and Rhetorical syllogism in which the audience must cover the deficiencies contained in the speech.
Social Exchange Theory
This theory reveals that the main strength of interpersonal relationships is the gratification of the desire of both parties, namely that the interpersonal exchange is the exchange economy in which both parties are satisfied Meras in accordance with the issued capital.
Social Penetration Theory
This theory states that interpersonal relationships appear regularly and are very predictable, theorists believe that openness is a more intimate relationship can also make people more weak and vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence Theory
This theory about the enormous power of the media that give rise to enduring public opinion, in which the mass media in cooperation with the majority of public opinion to create a public opinion that minorities still could not move, and this makes the individuals who are isolated because of fear of public opinion following the minoritychanged following the public opinion of the majority.
Standpoint Theory
This theory reveals that people in certain social outlook will get a different place in the social hierarchy. Therefore individuals see the social situation in a different position.Individuals in lower social levels will better understand the social situation rather than the higher social levels.
Theory of Structuration
This theory reveals that the groups and organizations to create structures that can be interpreted as rules of the organization which then produce a social system in the organization and used by members of groups and organizations for their lives.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
This theory states that the motivation to do something on each individual based on the meanings embedded in humans, objects and events, this became the basis of a language that allows individuals to interact with each other in a community.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
This theory states that when people who do not know each other meet the main focus is to reduce the level of uncertainty among individuals by using the communication.
Uses and Gratification Theory
This theory reveals why people choose and use a particular form of media. In this theory the media has limited power because of the audience control the media, so it can be concluded that this theory is to answer what the man did to the media.
0 comments:
Post a Comment