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Introduction to Science Communication Science Communication Resumes book An Introduction to Authorship Dedy Mulyana


A. DEFINITIONS
§ The model is a representation of a phenomenon, whether real or abstract, to highlight the most important elements of the phenomenon.
§ According to Sereno and Mortensen
Communication model is an ideal description of what is required for the occurrence of communication. Communication model abstractly represent important traits and eliminate unnecessary details of communication in the real world.
§ According to B. Albrey Fisher
The model is a simplified theory
§ According to Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard, Jr..
The model helps to formulate the theory and suggest a relationship so that the model and the theory has a close relationship.

The model can serve as a basis for a more complex theory, a tool to explain the theory and suggest ways to improve the concepts. We can use words, numbers, symbols and images to describe an object model, theory or process.

B. FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS MODELS
 Gordon Wiseman and Larry Barker argued that the communication model has three functions: first, describe the process of communication, the second, indicating visual relationships, and third, help in finding and repairing communication breakdowns.
Deutsch says that the model has four functions: to organize (the similarity of data and relationships) which was not observed, heuristic (indicating the facts and methods of odor that is not known), predictive, enabling forecasting of the type just yes or no to the quantitative with respect to when and how much: measurement, measure the predicted phenomena.
Irwin DJ. Bross mentioned some profit model. The model provides a frame of reference for thinking about the problem, if the initial model failed to predict. The model might suggest informational gaps that are not immediately apparent, and consequently can suggest actions that work. When a model is tested, the character of a successful failure. When a model is tested, the character of failure can sometimes provide clues about the lack of such models. Most advances in science actually generated by the failure of a model. Einstein's work was the development of the Michelson-Morley experiment which shows the model predictions gagal.menurut ether cause Bross model problem is the opening of abstraction. The real world is a very complex environment.
In the opinion of Raymond S. Ross, the model gives you a vision of another, different, and not close, the model provides a frame of reference, suggested informational gaps, highlighting the problems of abstraction, and states a problem in symbolic language when there are opportunities to use pictures or symbols.

TYPOLOGY OF MODELS
 Gerhard J. Hanneman and William J. McEwen, describes the taxonomy model that is easy to understand, in a graph, which depicts the different degrees of abstraction.From left to right, it appears that the degree of abstraction of the model decreases.
 

Description:
§ Mental models represent the internal mental processes that do not seem so relevant for us.
§ symbolic model consists of mathematical models and verbal models. Symbolic Model aalah models or theories expressed in words.
Verbal model is very useful, especially to state the hypothesis or presenting research results.
Verbal model is often aided by charts, diagrams or pictures. Raymond S. Ross. Call this model as a model of verbal-pictorial. Model graph or diagrammatic model schematically showing what can be served just words. Examples of this verbal model is the organizational structure.
§ Model 2 which are physically divided into iconic and analog models models
Model ikorik (form, shape, signs) resembles the object being modeled.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION AN INTRODUCTION
The model is a replica of communication more or less, mostly as a diagrammatic model of the real world. Communication is dynamic so communication is difficult modeled.
Ø MODEL S-R
↔ response to stimulus
This model shows communication as action-reaction process is very simple.
In summary, communication is considered static, man is considered to behave as the strength of the external (stimulus), not by the will, desire, or willingness freely. This model is more appropriate when applied to the air temperature control system rather than on human behavior.
Ø Model Aristotle
Aristotle's model is the most classic models of communication, which is often also called rhetorical model (Rhetorical) or public communication there are three basic elements in the communication process, namely:
§ Speaker (Speaker)
§ Message (message)
§ Listener (listener)
According to Aristotle persuasion can be achieved by who you are (ethos of trust you) your argument (logos-logic in your opinion), and by playing the audiences emotions (pathos-emotional audience.), The factors that play a role in determining the effects of a persuasive speech includes the content of the speech, composition, and how its delivery.
The weakness of this model are:
1) Communication sebgai considered a static phenomenon. Someone speaks the message goes to the audience, the audience is listening
2) It discusses non-verbal aspects of persuasion.
Ø Model Lasswell
Lasswell communication model in the form of verbal expression, namely:
1) Who, used to answer about controlling the message
2) Says what, used as a content analysis
3) In the which channel is used as a media analysis
4) To Whom, used as an audience analysis
5) With what effect, describes the relationship that caused mass communication messages on audiences, readers, listeners and viewers.
The model presented in 1948.Lasswell Harold Lasswell presents three functions of communication, namely: first, environmental controls remind members about the dangers and opportunities in the environment, secondly, the correlation separately in different parts of the community who respond to the environment, and thirdly, the transmission of inheritance social from one generation to generation, others.
Lasswell acknowledges that not all communication is two-way, with a smooth flow and feedback that occurs between the sender and penerima.Menurut Lasswell, an important function of communication is to provide information about other powerful countries in the world.
Lasswell model has been criticized because the model seems to imply the presence of the communicator and the message intended. The model was also considered too simplistic.


Ø Shannon and Weaver Model
Initial model of communication presented Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949 in the book The Mathematical Theory of Communication. The model is often called a mathematical model or a model of information theory it is probably the most powerful influence model over other models and theories of communication.
Shannon and Weaver's model highlights the problems of delivery of messages based on the level kecermatannya.model Shannon and Weaver assumes that the sources of information result in a message to be communicated from the set of possible messages. Transmitter (transmitter) converts the message into a signal corresponding to the channel used. Channel (channel) is a medium that transmits a signal (sign) from transmitter to receiver (receiver). In conversation, the source of this information is the brain, the transmitters is the mechanism that generates sound signals (spoken words), which is transmitted through the air (as channels). Peneima (receiver) that auditory mechanisms, otherwise the operation is performed by reconstructing the message from the transmitter signal. Target (destination) is the (brain) a person who becomes purpose of the message.
An important concept in Shannon and Weaver model is interference (noise) that any additional stimulus and desired not to disturb the accuracy of the message.
Communication experts reinforce this concept on psychological disorders and physical disorders. Psychological disorders include disorders that enters a person's thoughts and feelings that interfere with reception of messages accurately. The most obvious examples of interference is daydreaming.
Other concepts which are contributed by Shannon Weaver is enstropi (entropy) and redundancy (redundancy) and the necessary balance between the two to produce an efficient communication and at the same time overcome the interference in the channel.
Shannon and Weaver's model can be applied to other communication contexts such as interpersonal communication, public communication or mass communication.
Shannon and Weaver model weaknesses are:
§ Provide an overview of partial
§ Communication is seen as a static phenomenon and one-way
§ There is no concept of feedback
Ø Model Schramm (1954)
The first model is similar to the model of Shannon and Weaver. In the second model Schramm introduced the idea that the similarity in the field experience of the actual source and sasaranlah communicated as part of the signal that is shared equally by the source and target. The third model Schramm considers communication as the interaction with both parties that encode, interpret, encode and forth, menstransmisikan, and receive signals.
Schramm argues, albeit in a communication by radio or telephone can be a microphone encoder and decoder are the ear phones, in human communication, the source and encoder are one person, while the decoder and the target is another, and the signal is language. To accomplish an act of communication (communication act), a message must be encoded and forth.


Ø Model Newcomb
Theodore Newcomb (1953) looked at the communication of social-psychological perspective. The model reminds us of the network diagram created by the social psychologist and an early formulation of cognitive consistency.
In the Newcomb model, communication is a common and effective way that enables people to orient themselves to their environment. This is a model of communicative action of two people who deliberate (intentional). This model suggests that any system whatever may be marked by a balance of power and that any changes in any part of the system will cause tension on the proficiency level of balance or symmetry, due to an imbalance or lack of symmetry, psychologically unpleasant and cause internal pressure to restore the balance.
Ø Models Wesley and Maclean
In 1957, Bruce Westley and Malcolm Maclean, both the communication theorist, formulated a model that includes interpersonal communication and mass communication, and incorporate feedback as an integral part of the communication process.
According to both experts, the difference in the feedback inter-personal communication is what distinguishes personal with mass communication. Feedback from recipients are immediate in interpersonal communication, while the mass communication is minimal and or delayed. Sources in interpersonal communication is more fortunate than in mass communication in the sense that interpersonal communication sources can directly utilize the feedback from the receiver to know whether the message reaches the target and in accordance with the purpose of communication or not.
Westley and Maclean model includes several important concepts differences and similarities feedback interpersonal communication with mass communication, and opinion leaders are important as an additional element in mass communication. This model also distinguishes messages aimed yagn (purposively) * with a message that does not aim (nonpurposif). The message is a message sent aims to change the image of the source of the recipient of something in the environment.
In Westley and Maclean model there are five elements namely Orrientasi objects, messages, source, receiver and feedback Westley and Maclean did not restrict their model at the individual level even this model emphasized that the recipient may be a group or social lembara.
You send the message that purposively. The message is a message that diikirimkan nonpurposif source to the recipient directly or through a gate keeper but is not intended to influence the recipient.
Ø Model Gerbner
Gerbner's model (1956) is an extension of the Lasswell model, this model consists of models of verbal and diagrammatic models. Gerbner verbal model are as follows:
1) A person (the source, communication)
2) perceiving an event
3) And react
4) In a situation
5) Through a device (channel, media, physical engineering, facilities, administrative and institutional framework for distribution and control)
6) To provide material
7) In a form
8) Context
9) Which contain contents
10) Which has a consequence

MODEL DIAGRAMTK
1) Seseoang shown as M, which means human being (man) or as M if the sequence of communication involving mechanical devices. M may be sending or receiving messages are interpreted based on its location in the sequence of communication.
2) E 'is the incident (event) as perceived by M
3) S / E is a statement about the event
4) SSE is a signal about the statement regarding the incident
5) SSSE is communicated jasil
So Gerbner's model suggests that a person perceives an event and sends a message to a transmitter which sends gilingannya sinyak to the recipient (receiver) in the face of the transmission signal and the interference appears as SSSE for the target (destination)


Model Ø Berlo
Model David K. Berlo, who in the pointed out in 1960. This model is known as the SMCR model, an extension of the Source (the source), Message (the message), Channel (channel), and Recceiver (receiver). Source is the party that created the message, either a person or a group. The message is the translation of ideas into a symbolic code, such as language or gestures, the channel is the medium that carries the message, and the recipient is a person who becomes the target of communication
Berlo also illustrates the need for coding (encoder) and penandi and forth (decoder) in the communication process. Encoder is responsible menggekpresikan intent in the form of message sources. In face-to-face situations, an encryption function performed by the mechanism of vocal and muscular system sources that produce verbal and nonverbal messages.
According to Berlo model, the source and the recipient is influenced by these factors: ketermapilan communication, attitude, knowledge, social systems, and culture. The message was developed based on the elements, structure, content, treatment, and code.
 Excess Berlo model is that this model is not limited to public communication or mass communication, interpersonal and communication but also various forms of written communication. Berlo model is also heuristic (stimulating research), because the details are important elements in the communication process. Model weaknesses Berlo
feedback received from the public speaker is not included in his model graphs, and non-verbal communication is not considered important in influencing others.
Berlo model differences with Shannon and Weaver's model lies in the definition of the receiver (receiver). In the model of Berlo, who referred to the receiver is receiving the message, ie the person or persons (in the face to face communication) or audience of readers, listeners or viewers (in mass communication). While in Shannon and Weaver model is identical to the decoder in the receiver Schramm model, namely the auditory mechanism in direct communication, or the message receiving device, such as radio telephone or a television set, which deliver the message to the target (destination) in a communication does not directly.

Ø Model DeFleur
Model Melvin L. DeFleur, such as Westley and Maclean model, describing the model of mass communication than interpersonal communication. As acknowledged DeFleur, the model is the need to reason from the models presented by other experts, especially Shannon and Weaver, by incorporating the mass media (mass media device) and device feedback (feedback devices). He described the source (source), the transmitter (transmit-center), recipient (receiver), and the target (destination) as separate phases in the process of mass communication.
DeFleur receiver functions in the model is to accept information and encode it over-changing physical event information into a message (a significant symbol systems).
According to DeFleur communication is not a transfer of meaning Instead, communication occurs through a set of components operating in a theoretical system, which consequently is isomon fisme (isomorphism) between the internal response (meaning) to a set of specific symbols on the sender and receiver. Isomorphism of meaning refers to the coordinated effort of making meaning between the sender and the audience.

Ø Model Tubbs
The following communication model developed by L. Stewart Tubbs. This model describes the most fundamental communication is a two person (dyadic).
Communication can be "in the beginning" by the communicator a communicator or 2.Our daily Komuinikasi actually almost no structure so that both roles (communicator) and the communicator 2, almost bertumpah overlap.
Communication is irreversible means we can no longer be in its original position (both in knowledge, experience, or attitude) before the message hits us.
Tubbs communication model describes, either 1 or communicator communicators continuously acquire two inputs, namely the stimulation that comes from within or from outside itself, which has been passed or in progress, as well as all his experience in and knowledge about the physical and social world that they get through their senses.
Messages in the model can be either verbal message Tubbs, also nonverbal, can intentional or unintentional. The line is the instrument senses, especially hearing, sight and touch.

Ø Model Gdykunst and Kim
Model William B. Gudykuns and Young Yun Kim is actually a model of intercultural communication, ie communication between people from different cultures, or communication with a stranger (stranger).
As Tubbs model, model Kim Gudykuin and assume two people are equal in communication, respectively as well as sender and receiver, or both at once do the encoding (encording) and encryption and forth (decording).
According to Gudykunst and Kim, encoding and encryption-message behind the message is an interactive process influenced by conceptual filters are categorized into cultural factors, sosiobudaya, psikobudaya and environmental factors.

Ø Interactional Model
Interactional model refers to the communication model developed by social scientists who use symbolic interaction perspective, the main character of George Herbert Mead is one of muridna Herbert Blumer.
Interactional model is actually very difficult to describe in a diagrammatic model, due to the qualitative character, nonsistemik, and nonlinear. Verbal model more suitable for this model melikiskan. Transactional model does not classify the phenomenon of communication into a variety of elements or phases as described in the models of communication are linear or mechanistic. Instead, communication is described as the formation of meaning (interpretation of the message or behavior of others) by the participants of communication (communicator). Some important concepts used are: self (self), self-another (other), symbols, meanings, interpretations, and actions.
 In this context, Blumer suggests three underlying premise of this model. First, human beritndak meaning given by the individual against his social environment (the symbol of verbal, nonverbal symbols, physical environment). Second, the meaning is directly related to social interaction by individuals with their social environment. Third, meaning is created, maintained, and modified through an interpretive process by individuals in dealing with the social environment.

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